A trigger is a specification that the database should automatically execute a particular function whenever a certain type of operation is performed. Triggers can be attached to tables (partitioned or not), views, and foreign tables.
On tables and foreign tables, triggers can be defined to execute either
before or after any INSERT
, UPDATE
,
or DELETE
operation, either once per modified row,
or once per SQL statement.
UPDATE
triggers can moreover be set to fire only if
certain columns are mentioned in the SET
clause of
the UPDATE
statement. Triggers can also fire
for TRUNCATE
statements. If a trigger event occurs,
the trigger's function is called at the appropriate time to handle the
event.
On views, triggers can be defined to execute instead of
INSERT
, UPDATE
, or
DELETE
operations.
Such INSTEAD OF
triggers
are fired once for each row that needs to be modified in the view.
It is the responsibility of the
trigger's function to perform the necessary modifications to the view's
underlying base table(s) and, where appropriate, return the modified
row as it will appear in the view. Triggers on views can also be defined
to execute once per SQL statement, before or after
INSERT
, UPDATE
, or
DELETE
operations.
However, such triggers are fired only if there is also
an INSTEAD OF
trigger on the view. Otherwise,
any statement targeting the view must be rewritten into a statement
affecting its underlying base table(s), and then the triggers
that will be fired are the ones attached to the base table(s).
The trigger function must be defined before the trigger itself can be
created. The trigger function must be declared as a
function taking no arguments and returning type trigger
.
(The trigger function receives its input through a specially-passed
TriggerData
structure, not in the form of ordinary function
arguments.)
Once a suitable trigger function has been created, the trigger is established with CREATE TRIGGER. The same trigger function can be used for multiple triggers.
LightDB offers both per-row
triggers and per-statement triggers. With a per-row
trigger, the trigger function
is invoked once for each row that is affected by the statement
that fired the trigger. In contrast, a per-statement trigger is
invoked only once when an appropriate statement is executed,
regardless of the number of rows affected by that statement. In
particular, a statement that affects zero rows will still result
in the execution of any applicable per-statement triggers. These
two types of triggers are sometimes called row-level
triggers and statement-level triggers,
respectively. Triggers on TRUNCATE
may only be
defined at statement level, not per-row.
Triggers are also classified according to whether they fire
before, after, or
instead of the operation. These are referred to
as BEFORE
triggers, AFTER
triggers, and
INSTEAD OF
triggers respectively.
Statement-level BEFORE
triggers naturally fire before the
statement starts to do anything, while statement-level AFTER
triggers fire at the very end of the statement. These types of
triggers may be defined on tables, views, or foreign tables. Row-level
BEFORE
triggers fire immediately before a particular row is
operated on, while row-level AFTER
triggers fire at the end of
the statement (but before any statement-level AFTER
triggers).
These types of triggers may only be defined on tables and
foreign tables, not views.
INSTEAD OF
triggers may only be
defined on views, and only at row level; they fire immediately as each
row in the view is identified as needing to be operated on.
A statement that targets a parent table in an inheritance or partitioning hierarchy does not cause the statement-level triggers of affected child tables to be fired; only the parent table's statement-level triggers are fired. However, row-level triggers of any affected child tables will be fired.
If an INSERT
contains an ON CONFLICT
DO UPDATE
clause, it is possible that the effects of
row-level BEFORE
INSERT
triggers and
row-level BEFORE
UPDATE
triggers can
both be applied in a way that is apparent from the final state of
the updated row, if an EXCLUDED
column is referenced.
There need not be an EXCLUDED
column reference for
both sets of row-level BEFORE
triggers to execute,
though. The
possibility of surprising outcomes should be considered when there
are both BEFORE
INSERT
and
BEFORE
UPDATE
row-level triggers
that change a row being inserted/updated (this can be
problematic even if the modifications are more or less equivalent, if
they're not also idempotent). Note that statement-level
UPDATE
triggers are executed when ON
CONFLICT DO UPDATE
is specified, regardless of whether or not
any rows were affected by the UPDATE
(and
regardless of whether the alternative UPDATE
path was ever taken). An INSERT
with an
ON CONFLICT DO UPDATE
clause will execute
statement-level BEFORE
INSERT
triggers first, then statement-level BEFORE
UPDATE
triggers, followed by statement-level
AFTER
UPDATE
triggers and finally
statement-level AFTER
INSERT
triggers.
If an UPDATE
on a partitioned table causes a row to move
to another partition, it will be performed as a DELETE
from the original partition followed by an INSERT
into
the new partition. In this case, all row-level BEFORE
UPDATE
triggers and all row-level
BEFORE
DELETE
triggers are fired on
the original partition. Then all row-level BEFORE
INSERT
triggers are fired on the destination partition.
The possibility of surprising outcomes should be considered when all these
triggers affect the row being moved. As far as AFTER ROW
triggers are concerned, AFTER
DELETE
and AFTER
INSERT
triggers are
applied; but AFTER
UPDATE
triggers
are not applied because the UPDATE
has been converted to
a DELETE
and an INSERT
. As far as
statement-level triggers are concerned, none of the
DELETE
or INSERT
triggers are fired,
even if row movement occurs; only the UPDATE
triggers
defined on the target table used in the UPDATE
statement
will be fired.
Trigger functions invoked by per-statement triggers should always
return NULL
. Trigger functions invoked by per-row
triggers can return a table row (a value of
type HeapTuple
) to the calling executor,
if they choose. A row-level trigger fired before an operation has
the following choices:
It can return NULL
to skip the operation for the
current row. This instructs the executor to not perform the
row-level operation that invoked the trigger (the insertion,
modification, or deletion of a particular table row).
For row-level INSERT
and UPDATE
triggers only, the returned row
becomes the row that will be inserted or will replace the row
being updated. This allows the trigger function to modify the
row being inserted or updated.
A row-level BEFORE
trigger that does not intend to cause
either of these behaviors must be careful to return as its result the same
row that was passed in (that is, the NEW
row
for INSERT
and UPDATE
triggers, the OLD
row for
DELETE
triggers).
A row-level INSTEAD OF
trigger should either return
NULL
to indicate that it did not modify any data from
the view's underlying base tables, or it should return the view
row that was passed in (the NEW
row
for INSERT
and UPDATE
operations, or the OLD
row for
DELETE
operations). A nonnull return value is
used to signal that the trigger performed the necessary data
modifications in the view. This will cause the count of the number
of rows affected by the command to be incremented. For
INSERT
and UPDATE
operations only, the trigger
may modify the NEW
row before returning it. This will
change the data returned by
INSERT RETURNING
or UPDATE RETURNING
,
and is useful when the view will not show exactly the same data
that was provided.
The return value is ignored for row-level triggers fired after an
operation, and so they can return NULL
.
Some considerations apply for generated
columns. Stored generated columns are computed after
BEFORE
triggers and before AFTER
triggers. Therefore, the generated value can be inspected in
AFTER
triggers. In BEFORE
triggers,
the OLD
row contains the old generated value, as one
would expect, but the NEW
row does not yet contain the
new generated value and should not be accessed. In the C language
interface, the content of the column is undefined at this point; a
higher-level programming language should prevent access to a stored
generated column in the NEW
row in a
BEFORE
trigger. Changes to the value of a generated
column in a BEFORE
trigger are ignored and will be
overwritten.
If more than one trigger is defined for the same event on the same
relation, the triggers will be fired in alphabetical order by
trigger name. In the case of BEFORE
and
INSTEAD OF
triggers, the possibly-modified row returned by
each trigger becomes the input to the next trigger. If any
BEFORE
or INSTEAD OF
trigger returns
NULL
, the operation is abandoned for that row and subsequent
triggers are not fired (for that row).
A trigger definition can also specify a Boolean WHEN
condition, which will be tested to see whether the trigger should
be fired. In row-level triggers the WHEN
condition can
examine the old and/or new values of columns of the row. (Statement-level
triggers can also have WHEN
conditions, although the feature
is not so useful for them.) In a BEFORE
trigger, the
WHEN
condition is evaluated just before the function is or would be executed,
so using WHEN
is not materially different from testing the
same condition at the beginning of the trigger function. However, in
an AFTER
trigger, the WHEN
condition is evaluated
just after the row update occurs, and it determines whether an event is
queued to fire the trigger at the end of statement. So when an
AFTER
trigger's
WHEN
condition does not return true, it is not necessary
to queue an event nor to re-fetch the row at end of statement. This
can result in significant speedups in statements that modify many
rows, if the trigger only needs to be fired for a few of the rows.
INSTEAD OF
triggers do not support
WHEN
conditions.
Typically, row-level BEFORE
triggers are used for checking or
modifying the data that will be inserted or updated. For example,
a BEFORE
trigger might be used to insert the current time into a
timestamp
column, or to check that two elements of the row are
consistent. Row-level AFTER
triggers are most sensibly
used to propagate the updates to other tables, or make consistency
checks against other tables. The reason for this division of labor is
that an AFTER
trigger can be certain it is seeing the final
value of the row, while a BEFORE
trigger cannot; there might
be other BEFORE
triggers firing after it. If you have no
specific reason to make a trigger BEFORE
or
AFTER
, the BEFORE
case is more efficient, since
the information about
the operation doesn't have to be saved until end of statement.
If a trigger function executes SQL commands then these
commands might fire triggers again. This is known as cascading
triggers. There is no direct limitation on the number of cascade
levels. It is possible for cascades to cause a recursive invocation
of the same trigger; for example, an INSERT
trigger might execute a command that inserts an additional row
into the same table, causing the INSERT
trigger
to be fired again. It is the trigger programmer's responsibility
to avoid infinite recursion in such scenarios.
When a trigger is being defined, arguments can be specified for
it. The purpose of including arguments in the
trigger definition is to allow different triggers with similar
requirements to call the same function. As an example, there
could be a generalized trigger function that takes as its
arguments two column names and puts the current user in one and
the current time stamp in the other. Properly written, this
trigger function would be independent of the specific table it is
triggering on. So the same function could be used for
INSERT
events on any table with suitable
columns, to automatically track creation of records in a
transaction table for example. It could also be used to track
last-update events if defined as an UPDATE
trigger.
Each programming language that supports triggers has its own method
for making the trigger input data available to the trigger function.
This input data includes the type of trigger event (e.g.,
INSERT
or UPDATE
) as well as any
arguments that were listed in CREATE TRIGGER
.
For a row-level trigger, the input data also includes the
NEW
row for INSERT
and
UPDATE
triggers, and/or the OLD
row
for UPDATE
and DELETE
triggers.
By default, statement-level triggers do not have any way to examine the
individual row(s) modified by the statement. But an AFTER
STATEMENT
trigger can request that transition tables
be created to make the sets of affected rows available to the trigger.
AFTER ROW
triggers can also request transition tables, so
that they can see the total changes in the table as well as the change in
the individual row they are currently being fired for. The method for
examining the transition tables again depends on the programming language
that is being used, but the typical approach is to make the transition
tables act like read-only temporary tables that can be accessed by SQL
commands issued within the trigger function.