Timeseries Data

In a time-series workload, applications (such as some Real-Time Apps) query recent information, while archiving old information.

To deal with this workload, a single-node LightDB database would typically use table partitioning to break a big table of time-ordered data into multiple inherited tables with each containing different time ranges.

Storing data in multiple physical tables speeds up data expiration. In a single big table, deleting rows incurs the cost of scanning to find which to delete, and then vacuuming the emptied space. On the other hand, dropping a partition is a fast operation independent of data size. It’s the equivalent of simply removing files on disk that contain the data.

Partitioning a table also makes indices smaller and faster within each date range. Queries operating on recent data are likely to operate on “hot” indices that fit in memory. This speeds up reads.

Also inserts have smaller indices to update, so they go faster too.

Time-based partitioning makes most sense when:

1. Most queries access a very small subset of the most recent data

2. Older data is periodically expired (deleted/dropped)

Keep in mind that, in the wrong situation, reading all these partitions can hurt overhead more than it helps. However, in the right situations it is quite helpful. For example, when keeping a year of time series data and regularly querying only the most recent week.

Scaling Timeseries Data on Canopy

We can mix the single-node table partitioning techniques with Canopy’ distributed sharding to make a scalable time-series database. It’s the best of both worlds. It’s especially elegant atop LightDB’s declarative table partitioning.

For example, let’s distribute and partition a table holding historical GitHub events data.

Each record in this GitHub data set represents an event created in GitHub, along with key information regarding the event such as event type, creation date, and the user who created the event.

The first step is to create and partition the table by time as we would in a single-node LightDB database:

-- declaratively partitioned table
CREATE TABLE github_events (
  event_id bigint,
  event_type text,
  event_public boolean,
  repo_id bigint,
  payload jsonb,
  repo jsonb,
  actor jsonb,
  org jsonb,
  created_at timestamp
) PARTITION BY RANGE (created_at);

Notice the PARTITION BY RANGE (created_at). This tells LightDB that the table will be partitioned by the created_at column in ordered ranges. We have not yet created any partitions for specific ranges, though.

Before creating specific partitions, let’s distribute the table in Canopy. We’ll shard by repo_id, meaning the events will be clustered into shards per repository.

SELECT create_distributed_table('github_events', 'repo_id');

At this point Canopy has created shards for this table across worker nodes. Internally each shard is a table with the name github_events_N for each shard identifier N. Also, Canopy propagated the partitioning information, and each of these shards has Partition key: RANGE (created_at) declared.

A partitioned table cannot directly contain data, it is more like a view across its partitions. Thus the shards are not yet ready to hold data. We need to create partitions and specify their time ranges, after which we can insert data that match the ranges.

Automating Partition Creation

Canopy provides helper functions for partition management. We can create a batch of monthly partitions using create_time_partitions():

SELECT create_time_partitions(
  table_name         := 'github_events',
  partition_interval := '1 month',
  end_at             := now() + '12 months'
);

Canopy also includes a view, time_partitions, for an easy way to investigate the partitions it has created.

SELECT partition
  FROM time_partitions
 WHERE parent_table = 'github_events'::regclass;

┌────────────────────────┐
│       partition        │
├────────────────────────┤
│ github_events_p2021_10 │
│ github_events_p2021_11 │
│ github_events_p2021_12 │
│ github_events_p2022_01 │
│ github_events_p2022_02 │
│ github_events_p2022_03 │
│ github_events_p2022_04 │
│ github_events_p2022_05 │
│ github_events_p2022_06 │
│ github_events_p2022_07 │
│ github_events_p2022_08 │
│ github_events_p2022_09 │
│ github_events_p2022_10 │
└────────────────────────┘

As time progresses, you will need to do some maintenance to create new partitions and drop old ones. It’s best to set up a periodic job to run the maintenance functions with an extension like pg_cron:

-- set two monthly cron jobs:

-- 1. ensure we have partitions for the next 12 months

SELECT cron.schedule('create-partitions', '0 0 1 * *', $$
  SELECT create_time_partitions(
      table_name         := 'github_events',
      partition_interval := '1 month',
      end_at             := now() + '12 months'
  )
$$);

-- 2. (optional) ensure we never have more than one year of data

SELECT cron.schedule('drop-partitions', '0 0 1 * *', $$
  CALL drop_old_time_partitions(
      'github_events',
      now() - interval '12 months' /* older_than */
  );
$$);

Once periodic maintenance is set up, you no longer have to think about the partitions, they just work.

Archiving with Columnar Storage

Some applications have data that logically divides into a small updatable part and a larger part that’s “frozen.” Examples include logs, clickstreams, or sales records. In this case we can combine partitioning with columnar table storage to compress historical partitions on disk. Canopy columnar tables are currently append-only, meaning they do not support updates or deletes, but we can use them for the immutable historical partitions.

A partitioned table may be made up of any combination of row and columnar partitions. When using range partitioning on a timestamp key, we can make the newest partition a row table, and periodically roll the newest partition into another historical columnar partition.

Let’s see an example, using GitHub events again. We’ll create a new table called github_columnar_events for disambiguation from the earlier example. To focus entirely on the columnar storage aspect, we won’t distribute this table.

Next, download sample data:

wget http://examples.citusdata.com/github_archive/github_events-2015-01-01-{0..5}.csv.gz
gzip -c -d github_events-2015-01-01-*.gz >> github_events.csv

-- our new table, same structure as the example in
-- the previous section

CREATE TABLE github_columnar_events ( LIKE github_events )
PARTITION BY RANGE (created_at);

-- create partitions to hold two hours of data each

SELECT create_time_partitions(
  table_name         := 'github_columnar_events',
  partition_interval := '2 hours',
  start_from         := '2015-01-01 00:00:00',
  end_at             := '2015-01-01 08:00:00'
);

-- fill with sample data
-- (note that this data requires the database to have UTF8 encoding)

\COPY github_columnar_events FROM 'github_events.csv' WITH (format CSV)

-- list the partitions, and confirm they're
-- using row-based storage (heap access method)

SELECT partition, access_method
  FROM time_partitions
 WHERE parent_table = 'github_columnar_events'::regclass;

┌─────────────────────────────────────────┬───────────────┐
│                partition                │ access_method │
├─────────────────────────────────────────┼───────────────┤
│ github_columnar_events_p2015_01_01_0000 │ heap          │
│ github_columnar_events_p2015_01_01_0200 │ heap          │
│ github_columnar_events_p2015_01_01_0400 │ heap          │
│ github_columnar_events_p2015_01_01_0600 │ heap          │
└─────────────────────────────────────────┴───────────────┘

-- convert older partitions to use columnar storage

CALL alter_old_partitions_set_access_method(
  'github_columnar_events',
  '2015-01-01 06:00:00' /* older_than */,
  'columnar'
);

-- the old partitions are now columnar, while the
-- latest uses row storage and can be updated

SELECT partition, access_method
  FROM time_partitions
 WHERE parent_table = 'github_columnar_events'::regclass;

┌─────────────────────────────────────────┬───────────────┐
│                partition                │ access_method │
├─────────────────────────────────────────┼───────────────┤
│ github_columnar_events_p2015_01_01_0000 │ columnar      │
│ github_columnar_events_p2015_01_01_0200 │ columnar      │
│ github_columnar_events_p2015_01_01_0400 │ columnar      │
│ github_columnar_events_p2015_01_01_0600 │ heap          │
└─────────────────────────────────────────┴───────────────┘

To see the compression ratio for a columnar table, use VACUUM VERBOSE. The compression ratio for our three columnar partitions is pretty good:

VACUUM VERBOSE github_columnar_events;

INFO:  statistics for "github_columnar_events_p2015_01_01_0000":
storage id: 10000000003
total file size: 4481024, total data size: 4444425
compression rate: 8.31x
total row count: 15129, stripe count: 1, average rows per stripe: 15129
chunk count: 18, containing data for dropped columns: 0, zstd compressed: 18

INFO:  statistics for "github_columnar_events_p2015_01_01_0200":
storage id: 10000000004
total file size: 3579904, total data size: 3548221
compression rate: 8.26x
total row count: 12714, stripe count: 1, average rows per stripe: 12714
chunk count: 18, containing data for dropped columns: 0, zstd compressed: 18

INFO:  statistics for "github_columnar_events_p2015_01_01_0400":
storage id: 10000000005
total file size: 2949120, total data size: 2917407
compression rate: 8.51x
total row count: 11756, stripe count: 1, average rows per stripe: 11756
chunk count: 18, containing data for dropped columns: 0, zstd compressed: 18

One power of the partitioned table github_columnar_events is that it can be queried in its entirety like a normal table.

SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT repo_id)
  FROM github_columnar_events;

┌───────┐
│ count │
├───────┤
│ 16001 │
└───────┘

Entries can be updated or deleted, as long as there’s a WHERE clause on the partition key which filters entirely into row table partitions.

Archiving a Row Partition to Columnar Storage

When a row partition has filled its range, you can archive it to compressed columnar storage. We can automate this with pg_cron like so:

-- a monthly cron job

SELECT cron.schedule('compress-partitions', '0 0 1 * *', $$
  CALL alter_old_partitions_set_access_method(
    'github_columnar_events',
    now() - interval '6 months' /* older_than */,
    'columnar'
  );
$$);

For more information, see Columnar Storage.